LYONEL FEININGER’S LOCOMOTIVES AND TRAINS Experiencing Materials and Colors Through Toys as Learning Materials at the Bauhaus Ina Scheffler ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the “Block-Eisenbahn” (block train), a particular work by Lyonel Feininger, one of the first masters appointed to the Bau- haus in 1919. The block train’s main characteristics are internationality, model consistency and unbreakability – and it is one example of how ma- terial and color experiences through toys were discussed in different frames of reference in the context of the Bauhaus. These works were de- veloped, discussed and commercialized in various situations and taken se- riously as learning material, but above all, they represented a design task in teaching. Feininger used the term ‘model’ when explaining his work. A model is a representation of an object and all of its physical properties, but not an exact reproduction. Through models, central features of an ob- ject are represented abstractly and perhaps even highlighted. This nego- tiation and upheaval of the original exemplifies how toys, if they are taken seriously and if their innovative strength is acknowledged, can serve as a starting point for educational and didactic figures of thought. Keywords: games, play, art, education, Bauhaus Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains 1 . TOYS AS A DESIGN TASK “I could imagine that adults could like my railroads, or did like them when they were children, might buy my models and use them for decoration.” (Feininger/Feininger 1965, 28) This is how Lyonel Feininger commented on his block train in a conversa- tion with Julie Feininger on May 13, 1913. As early as 1913, on commission from a toy manufacturer, he was concerned with the form, colorfulness, functionality and design of toys. He designed railways made of hardwood (ibid.). In the introductory quote above, he uses the term ‘models,’ which encompasses the object-like representation of an object and all its phys- ical characteristics, but at the same time does not represent an exact re- production, but rather abstracts and, under certain circumstances, high- lights central characteristics. In this way, the original fades into the back- ground and its qualities, deficits or particularly outstanding features come to the fore. Models can be over-sized or miniature versions of the original. In play, the immense size of the world is made tangible and explored (Hartung 2014, 66). One variation of this game is the play with proportions and the reversal of habits of seeing and touching. Here, the scale is re- versed: houses become miniatures and mice are greatly enlarged as stuffed toys. Role changes are also possible through playing with models. This kind of play allows the child to become a world leader and inventor, to combine and to create, but also to dismantle what it has willingly cre- ated. It can happen within a fixed framework, following rules like those of Josef Hartwig’s chess game,1 but also in free play with its infinite possibil- ities of addition, maximization and reduction, combination, concretization and abstraction. Like any other toy, the miniatures have the potential to captivate the players, thus immersing them in play on a small scale, mak- ing them forget everything around them. One aspect of this potential is 1 Josef Hartwig's chess game exemplifies the cooperation between the various work- shops; Heinz Nösselt constructed a chess table in the joinery, while the student Joost Schmidt designed posters, printed matter and an advertising poster (Droste 1990, 95). 210 Spiel |Formen Special Issue: Ludomater ial it ies that toys in other formats, with other color schemes or material changes, play a game with similarity logics through unusual scales. Fig. 1: Lyonel Feininger: “Kleine Eisenbahn”, 1913-1914 (bottom left); Lyonel Feininger: “Lokomotive”, 1913 (top right). Toy trains are as old as railways themselves, and they were already popu- lar and widespread in the mid-19th century (Baecker/Wagner 1985, 4). Lit- erature unanimously regards them as a typical product of the Industrial Revolution. Here, toy trains became mass-produced and obtaining them became easier as they were available in many places and comparatively low in price. The railway movement, the smooth glide of the long chain of carriages, was also an innovation that only became possible in the phase of industrialization through technical innovations such as the rail. Toy trains imitated a typical means of transport of industrialization. As early as 1911, Lyonel Feininger had begun to develop construction drawings for wooden toy trains on behalf of the Munich toy manufacturer Löwenstein. These drawings already show an important detail that Fein- inger created: instead of movable wheels, he developed a sliding block with wheels that were painted on. This not only made the miniature easier and cheaper to produce, but also provided an interesting way to imitate 211 ... Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains the sliding of the trains’ rollers on smooth surfaces. This innovation was very important to Feininger and he patented the idea. According to letters he wrote, he planned on developing mass-produced items for the toy in- dustry by designing model trains. In a letter to his wife Julie from April 7, 1913, he noted: “I see in the idea of model trains an inexhaustible source of the most piquan, most charming possibilities. I am now at work, as if I were caring for the future in material terms; My [sic!] idea is also to design an article for world trade.” (Mesinovic 2004, 216, author’s own translation) In the same letter, Feininger also explained “I even want to make some of the original trains […] And the things are to be labeled, and called by the name of the old railway company, this is the main hit with them. Models should have seasons, and names like Rocket, Lady of the Lake, John, etc.” (ibid., author’s own translation). Modern was the design and the idea of the products, but they were to be assembled and painted by hand. The be- ginning of the First World War, however, destroyed this idea, and after Löwenstein’s death in the 1920s, the box of prototypes was sent back to Feininger. In Germany, the first toy train made of simple tin plate entered the market in 1835. The production of the Märklin company became commer- cially important when it presented a wind-up railway with a complete track system at the Leipzig Toy Fair in 1891 (ibid., 215-218). When the rail- way was invented in 1801, this also marked the beginning of the creation of models that were as faithful to the original as possible. These models focused particularly on technology and function, and were neither in- tended for children nor for play; they used methylated spirits to run the steam engines, exactly like the large models, and served as entertainment for adults. It was not until 1912 that engineer Karl Moritz advocated for the use of transformers that could regulate the power now needed for pro- pulsion down to a harmless voltage (Feininger/Feininger 1965, 28). 212 Spiel |Formen Special Issue: Ludomater ial it ies 2. TOYS IN RELATION TO PEDAGOGICAL AND DIDACTIC FIGURES OF THOUGHT With his trains, Lyonel Feininger, who was one of the first masters to be appointed to the Bauhaus in 1919 (Fromm 2009), pursued the ambitious goal of developing a classic toy comparable in its significance and innova- tive power to the Anker brick building set, which was to become commer- cially successful at the same time as Feininger’s model train. Building blocks in Anker boxes are molded parts, pressed and baked from sand, whiting (powdered and washed white chalk), and linseed oil. Like the three traditional materials used in construction – brick, sandstone and slate – they are produced in the colors red, yellow and blue. Unlike Lego bricks, for example, they are completely smooth. Building with the Anker bricks is all about statics. In contrast to Lego, the idea of the combinable building set is based on an educational concept. The educationalist Friedrich Fröbel developed the didactic figure of the ‘play gifts’ (Spielgaben). Due to the system of supplementary boxes that build on each other with enclosed building instructions, the architec- ture and model game, invented in Rudolstadt in 1882 by the brothers Gus- tav and Otto Lilienthal, is considered the prototype of the system toy (Werner 2016, 302-303). Feininger’s toys were not that developed and didactically sound. While Feininger did not refer to didactic or pedagogical literature, he did observe didactic and general pedagogical issues in his personal environ- ment – and he used these observations when developing his projects. His target groups were “[…] every real boy and most grown-ups” (Fein- inger/Feininger 1965, 28). When the First World War put an end to these plans, Feininger had already registered his name as a trademark for the manufacture and sale of toys and had developed packaging labels with the inscription Feininger (Tietze 2001, 114). Furthermore, the packaging la- bels with the inscription “Lyonel Feininger’s Block Railway, International. True to model. Unbreakable” (in German: “Lyonel Feiningers Block-Eisen- bahn, International. Modellgetreu. Unzerbrechlich”) had already been 213 ... Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains printed (ibid.). The sliding block of the railways was an invention of Fein- inger, who had it patented. As a child, Florian Karsch, the nephew of the gallery brothers Karl and Josef Nierendorf, first from Cologne and later from Berlin, played with Feininger’s trains. He grew up surrounded by the artists represented by the gallery and their works. These included Expres- sionists such as Erich Heckel, Emil Nolde and Karl Schmitt-Rottluff. Ini- tially unknown artists such as the art teacher and painter Lorenz Humburg, the photographer Karl Blossfeldt, and the New Objectivity painter Ernst Thoms were part of the Berlin environment (Walter-Ris 2003). Karsch was disappointed by Feininger’s train as a child: “It didn’t move!” (Luyken 2004, 36, author’s own translation). As creative works that adapted to the conditions of industrial produc- tion, Feininger’s model trains anticipated a central Bauhaus founding idea. It is therefore surprising that Feininger, once appointed to the Bauhaus, continued to design toys for children, but now primarily individual pieces. They were developed and manufactured for his own three sons or for friends’ children and Bauhaus colleagues. They were houses, bridges, trees and figures made of spruce wood and painted in bright colors. Twisted medieval buildings and village churches based on real models from small Thuringian towns such as Gelmeroda were the models for the houses. Feininger’s deployable little houses were reminiscent of Dagobert Peche’s city construction kit (ibid., 35-36). Peche was initially a member of the Wiener Werkstätten (Vienna Workshop). In 1916, after successfully organizing the Vienna Fashion Ex- hibition of 1915/16, Peche became the director of its Zurich branch. The Vienna Workshop had also been producing artistic toys since it was estab- lished in 1903. These were characterized by very individual approaches. Its stylistically confident range can be demonstrated very well by the ex- ample of two city construction kits designed by Josef Hoffmann and Da- gobert Peche. Peche chose angular medieval gabled houses as models for his town toys created around 1918. No two houses were alike, each of the pastel-colored buildings was elaborately decorated with patterns. As packaging, the artist designed a box divided into compartments and lined with mirrors. While the mirrors set off the buildings already in the box, the 214 Spiel |Formen Special Issue: Ludomater ial it ies sophistication of the packaging also meant that the city building set was at best suitable for older children and/or those who can sit still for longer periods of time. Interestingly, Hoffmann, who was otherwise rather critical of Peche’s toys, thought the construction set was exemplary. Two years later, however, Hoffmann himself arrived at a radically different solution: an ultra-modern play city with factory chimneys and skyscrapers. His building blocks, reduced to a few basic shapes, are extremely sparing, with lines symbolizing the endless window fronts of skyscrapers (Luyken 2004, 35-36). Bruno Taut formulates the examination of the phenome- non of play very freely in a newsletter of the artist community Gläserne Kette (The Crystal Chain): “In the style, the game is the goal, In the game, the goal is the style, At the goal, the style is the game.” (Döhl 1988, 122) In this context, play is understood without function or pedagogical inten- tions, ulterior motives, effects or programs. This open attitude is also re- flected in the miniature houses of Peche, Hoffmann and Feininger. The artists worked with building templates and did not pursue any pedagogical intentions. But while Peche’s houses remained decorated elements based on medieval models and components of a construction kit, Feininger’s wayward buildings can also be seen individually as sculptures in miniature format that deviated from real or historical models, developing into their own interpretations. Here, experimentation with size and its significance for the work become artistic themes alongside form and materiality: “If you got it, you can be monumental – even on a stamp” (Bellini 2012, 35, author’s own translation). While Feininger’s designs would have been suitable for other groups of people, they remained in the Bauhaus environment (Luyken 2004, 35- 36). Their thematic spectrum was wide and could also have been used in an industrial-commercial context, as there were flexible and infinitely combinable elements, such as houses, bridges, trees and figures made of 215 ... Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains spruce wood, painted in bright colors. Their simplicity, combinability and colorful design is comparable to early Lego designs. Through the idea of historical reference and the resulting similarities and references, Feininger resumed an approach that he had already pursued in the context of his railways. Another means of designing miniatures, especially in areas such as architecture, model making and urban planning, is the maxim of exact, albeit abstracted and/or reduced representation. In contemporary and historical toy worlds, a spectrum of similarities is depicted in different ma- terials, forms, scales, combinations and degrees of abstraction. These ob- servations give reason to assume that the design task for toys and play materials arises directly from the task of thematizing life in all its forms of design as formulated by Gropius, especially in the context of the Bauhaus (Gropius 1926, cited from Conrads 2011, 47). The toys reveal a series of design tasks and assignments that relate to form, function and materiality. Thus, Lyonel Feininger’s works also show a preoccupation with scale and fidelity to scale, but an artistic will to design is in the foreground. This is particularly clearly formulated in his letters. In these, he states that the consequence of working on the design task and with the object of the toy was a reflection on his own artistic work. Far from model railway land- scapes, as an artist Feininger formulated and experimented with a free form of design without prioritizing feasibility or realism. References to reality can also be seen in Claude Lévi-Strauss’ The Sav- age Mind. Here, Lévi-Strauss (1968, 92) deals with hobbyist and engineer models and contrasts them. He describes that the hobbyist model, in con- trast to the engineer model, tries to bring larger dimensions and refer- ences back to a manageable scale in order to make reality manageable, or to appropriate it in the first place. Engineering models, on the other hand, refer to the model-like, resilient and realistic recording and representation of technical data. For example, stress, dimensions, properties and materi- ality can be recorded and summarized in the model. In contrast to these claims of resilience, the German art critic and art sociologist Walter Grasskamp (1980, 62-71) sees the hobbyist model as a built figure with a ‘tendency toward cuteness’. Gaston Bachelard (1975, 191) recognizes the miniature as a metaphysical balancing exercise that makes it possible to 216 Spiel |Formen Special Issue: Ludomater ial it ies be value-creating with little risk (ibid.). Like the architectural model, this is also an exploration of scale. 3 . ARTISTS' TOYS AS PART OF TEACHING AT THE BAU- HAUS Unlike in Feininger’s artistic work, the market and marketing remained im- portant components of the design processes at the Bauhaus. In the pre- liminary teaching of the Bauhaus, perception and handling of design ele- ments such as form, color and material were trained. This can be seen in toys and children’s furniture that reflect techniques such as woodworking, weaving, typography and photography. Many of the designs by Alma Siedhoff- Buscher, Ludwig Hirschfeld-Mack or Marcel Breuer went into serial production and were successfully marketed (Tietze 2001, 113). In the direct and indirect contemporary environment of the Bauhaus, there was also an intensive examination of artistic designs by and for children. An important aspect of this – also for the art education of the 1950s, which took up many figures of thought from reform pedagogy and the pedagogy of the 1920s in general – was the examination of children’s drawings. Im- portant names in this context are Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Paul Klee, Max Ernst, Gabriele Münter and Wassily Kandinsky. Through an intensive examination of children’s drawings through observation, collection and reflection, new materials and forms to work with were found – and the resulting toys were made of stone, metal or wood. These were often in- tensively received and collaboratively created in the Bauhaus environ- ment. For example, in 1923, teaching aids and educational toys were dis- cussed in the work drawing class (Luyken 2004, 35-36). This is particularly interesting as alleged boundaries between particular subjects and field of works were overcome in the process, for example in relation to drawings with artistic ambition and children’s drawings, which follow completely different demands and functions. In this context, the traditional role at- tribution of artists was abolished and expanded to include a preoccupa- tion with children’s drawings. This expansion is already indicated in the ideas of the artists who can be attributed to Viennese Art Nouveau. Here, 217 ... Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains all areas of daily life culminated in the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk (“syn- thesis of the arts”). The Viennese artists tried to think themselves into the world of the child and added creative elements into this world. These el- ements were, for example, old forms of folk customs, forgotten tech- niques and materials that were rediscovered and adapted for the produc- tion of children’s toys. Something new was therefore created in Vienna by drawing on tradition. Objects for children were created with the awareness that art is created through play, that artistic forms can be traced back to mental playfulness: “There is a piece of artistry in every child – what would the game be other than a kind of art instinct?” (Luyken 2004, 35-36, au- thor’s own translation). Art became a principle of life that was supposed to enable adults and children alike to experience new, spiritual freedoms. In Kind und Kunst, Konrad Lange describes art and play as complements to life. For him, they become substitutes for a missing or ‘lying reality’ (Lange 1904, 7-8). Joseph August Lux expressed this in a similar way: “ The toy relates to the things of everyday life like the fairy tale to reality” (Lux 1903, 5, author’s own translation). The properties, the shape and the col- orfulness of things, their characteristics as objects that are to be played with, thus became the occasion for artistic and pedagogical reflections. As Alma Siedhoff-Buscher put it: “Our play toys: the form – simple, unam- biguously clear and exact; diversity and attraction is created by the child itself through putting together and building” (Buscher 1924, 189-190, au- thor’s own translation). As a representative of the Bauhaus, Siedhoff- Buscher took up concepts and thoughts from the Vienna workshops and expanded them. Many placed emphasis on artistic design and a knowledge of craft skills with a conscious search for further development and expansion. This can be seen in relation to the reflection of scaling and the play with scale relationships and model functions, as with Peche and Hoffmann (Hartung 2014, 25-26). 4 . MEASURE AS A MEANS OF DESIGN AND EXPRESSION The play with scale and measurements and its potential for perception and design was intensively pursued in art history even after the Bauhaus. 218 Spiel |Formen Special Issue: Ludomater ial it ies Thus, in the art context, at the latest with the emergence of American Min- imal Art and Conceptual Art, the question of the model, of the conception of an object as a model, of its functions and potentials becomes relevant. These questions feed artistic models of thought and scaling games on the rationally developed object. On the basis of such works, the variety of at- tribution possibilities with which something is described as a model be- comes clear in the art scene. The concept of a model was originally used in architecture, mediated by the Italian modello, and derived from the Latin modellus or modulus, which means ‘small measure’ (Oechslin 1995). Furthermore, the Middle High German term model, via the Old High Ger- man module with the same Latin etymology, also came to mean pattern or form, which still resonates today in job titles in the fashion industry; it also continues to be used in the field of art in study and design contexts (Mahr 2003). The strategy of shifting scale, exemplified in the monumen- tal sculptures of everyday things that Claes Oldenburg has been designing since the 1960s on the basis of smaller models, is already inherent in the concept of the model itself. In the context of the development of models of thought into actual models, another becomes interesting. Model theo- rist Bernd Mahr has developed a ‘model of being a model’: “The context in which the object of an object understood as a model stands by the model judgment can be determined in general in its quality and structure. When understanding an object as a model, that object is related by considering it both as a MODEL of some- thing and as a model for something. This dual orientation exists only in the conception of model existence generated by the model judg- ment.” (Mahr 2008, 202, author’s own translation) This alternation between model character and model-like quality is also evident in Feininger’s train, which does not roll, but glides, and which shows wheels, but does not have them. However, the model also shows how the relationship between the creators of the model and the model itself, as well as between the creators and the recipients, changes. The re- lationship between the viewer and the model is shown in a design on the cover of the reformist educational magazine Kind und Kunst. The picture 219 ... Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains shows a child with a model. The child, in the pose of the thinker and im- mersed in the model, becomes the creator of their own world, and seems to be reflecting, planning or designing (see Fig. 2). In this reflection of childhood, markers of the modernization of society as a whole, but sub- sequently also of the realities of children’s lives, become apparent. The large, childlike head and hand are reminiscent of models and miniatures, the double game with scale shows the examination of the question of what role children have and play. If we look into children’s rooms a hun- dred years later, we see an unbroken fascination for the model as well as the recurring questions about the role of children, about the shaping of childhood as well as about toys. The boundless possibilities and themes are depicted in an infinite spectrum. Fig. 2: Cover of the “Kind und Kunst” magazine (1901). Fig. 3: Postcard with pictures of young Wilhelm II, German Emperor (1900). 220 Spiel |Formen Special Issue: Ludomater ial it ies Another child of his time is shown on a postcard from around 1900 (see Fig. 3): it depicts young Wilhelm II, German Emperor-to-be, in four situa- tions. This depiction also shows the interpretation of a child and its role in relation to enlargement and minimization. In each picture, he is dressed like an adult, and it becomes clear how this boy is stylized into an ‘adult miniature’ through clothing, facial expression and pose. The imperial era also plays a role as a prehistory, as a time from which the Bauhäusler (Bau- haus members) emerged, because it forms a kind of foil for the Bauhaus through its political, social and aesthetic circumstances and transfor- mations. Eclecticism and historicism are both an expression of their time and a target for innovation and change. The image of childhood and the ideas of childrens’ worlds of experience are also subject to these move- ments. Works of different materialities designed by artists for children have so far received limited attention, even though they display an exception- ally high degree of imagination, originality and creativity. However, pro- jects like the exhibition Art – a Child's Play (Berlin, 1901) in particular give an initial overview of the work of artists for children. Another aspect that is reflected in historical as well as contemporary discourses is the question of space for individuality and the personal, hence creative freedom of chil- dren. This question can be exemplified by Lego, especially in relation to the promise that is expressed in Lego’s name: “Leg godt,” which means “Play well”. In additive modular parts – comparable to the Anker building set or combinable railways – the early building sets made it possible to transfer basic elements into infinite, free combinations that could be indi- vidually filled with content. Currently, however, this potential infinity is in fact being deconstructed through digitalization as well as through strong specifications by the manufacturers and the play worlds developed by them with precise building instructions. Sociologist Harald Welzer (2019, 85) addresses this transition of play and its structures by theorizing it as an allegory of ‘dreams of reality’ disappearing from the real world. Through the usage of exact construction plans, he sees the emergence of a world of infinite redundancy. This shows that game worlds create spaces 221 ... Ina Scheffler Lyonel Feininger ’s Locomotives and Trains for reality, but also allow them to be shaped, reshaped and further devel- oped. 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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Ina Scheffler studied Cultural Anthropology, Modern English Literature and Scandinavian Studies in Bonn. Master's Examination (2007), 2009 to 2012 Lecturer at the University of Siegen (Swedish), State Examinations I and II in Art and English, 2012 to 2014 Teaching at the Gymnasium, April 2014 to July 2017 Lecturer at the Staatl. Kunstakademie Düsseldorf (art didactics), April 2015 to April 2018 interim professorship at the Kunsthochschule Mainz (art didactics), since April 2018 interim professor- ship at the University of Siegen (art didactics), since 2019 postdoc (Uni- versity of Siegen), Doctorate on the Roland School as the first Zero space and art didactic functions of school architecture with Prof. Dr. Kunibert Bering, publications on the topics of school architecture, educational spaces and children's drawing, Hier und Jetzt. Gegenwart, Gegenwarts- kunst und künstlerisches Denken als fruchtbare Bildungsmomente, Ler- chenfeld 46/2018, pp. 20-23. 224